How does Steinbeck present the American Dream in ‘Of Mice And Men’ Essay

The American Dream is the term used for the dream that all American people share particularly during The Grate Depression. It could be argued that all the characters in the novel share this dream. The American Dream was a dream that nearly everyone had throughout the twentieth century. It was hope for a better life and people believed strongly that it would come true. The main characters in ‘Of Mice & Men’ have a dream which was to get a plot of land and live on it and become self-sufficient. The American Dream was not an achievable goal for many people. Steinbeck shows this failure through the characters of Lennie & George. We first heard about The American Dream when Lennie and George were sitting by the river at the beginning of the book. Their dream was one of independence. Workers like Lennie and George had no family, no home, and very little control over their lives. They had to do what the boss tells them and they had little to show for it. They only own what they can carry. Therefore, this idea of having such power over their lives is a strong motivation. The dream was a hope that every, rancher had an opportunity for a better life. Lennie and George, the two main characters, had such a dream, â€Å"Some day were gonna get a little place and a couple of acres†. The idea was to get a piece of land, grow crops and have an improved life there. They also new exactly what they were aiming for and what they wanted. Because of the World Depression at the time this dream seemed non-realistic, as no one had any money and people were struggling to get jobs. They all thought the dream would provide them with a better life, more money and a sense as belonging. The dream gave them a feeling of happiness and hope. The dream was also used as a source of comfort, Lennie would craftily use the dream to comfort George when he was angered, and George would bribe Lennie with the dream ‘But you ain’t gonna get in to no trouble, because if you do, I wont let you tend the rabbits.’ Later on in the story Candy joins in with the dream, this makes the dream seem more realistic, instead of just fooling themselves. This gives candy freedom and hope because without a job he would have no future. Apart from that he has all the same reasons as George and Lennie to want a ranch, (hope, success, happiness etc). Curly’s wife also tells us about her dream in the book. Her dream is different to the ranch workers; he dream is a typical woman’s dream to become famous in the movies. This was really all the women could do at the time, she was hoping for glamour and attention, to improve her status and have some independence. The reason for wanting the dream seems the same for everyone in the book even though they are different ‘types’ of people. We know that the dream is not realistic because crooks tells us and we believe crooks because he’s intelligent. We know this because in the description of his room it is said that he has books on his shelves. Crooks also tells us about his dream in the story and it practically identical to the others dreams. When Whit brings in the pulp magazine with the letter written by Bill Tenner, the men are all very impressed. They are not certain that Bill wrote the letter, but Whit is convinced he did, and tries to convince the others. In the transient life of these workers, it is rare to leave any kind of permanent mark on the world. In this letter Bill Tenner has achieved some of the immortality the other men cannot imagine for themselves. I think this upsets the workers a bit and makes them long for their dreams to come true even more In the conclusion of the story everyone’s dreams have been shattered. The dream is ported as a brutal struggle. And in impossible goal to achieve, this is showed in all characters but most in the two characters Lennie and George.

The Strength of Weak Ties

Here I would like to emphasize a bit on Social Capital. Social capital according to me is the pool of ties that a person encompasses during his lifetime including strong and weak ties. Persons with higher social capital are bound to be better off with greater health and general well being. Social capital helps to leverage the people we communicate with for the benefit of our shared and individual interest. We can relate this with a famous punch line – â€Å"I scratch your back, you scratch mine. The basic hypothesis of Granovetter’s work is that our acquaintances play a very important part in connecting different networks to one another. A personal example which I would like to share is that I have around 30 very closely knitted friends and family members and about 300 odd acquaintances. These acquaintances are comprised of my old classmates, co-workers and some friends through social networking groups. In the digital world these are friends connected through facebook, LinkedIn, orkut etc. Personally speaking it makes sense that in some cases my family and my close knitted friends are best suited to provide me with quality options and choices. For the most part I believe this is true under certain circumstances during personal care when I am sick or when I need advice for some personal decisions in life. But when it comes to looking out for a job the theory comes true to life. I would be naturally tapping my network of acquaintances and assuming I have a good amount of social capital in my network, I would be more likely be presented with more opportunities than my family and close knitted friends. Another example explaining the theory of weak ties is between the social networks existing in this globe. We can take an example of how LinkedIn is different from Facebook and why that difference matters. Weak ties are the social â€Å"degrees of separation† beyond the people we actually know. Facebook primarily is about knowing who you know, connecting with people who are already in your social circle. In my experience it does little to help you develop weak ties and it does nothing to introduce you to people you do not know. There is an interesting paradox that Facebook, perhaps, reinforces our stereotypes, because we are just getting content from our mostly like minded friends. LinkedIn by contrast, is about helping people expand their circles and improve their opportunities. LinkedIn has been slower to take off because it is a harder â€Å"get. † Beyond being a resume building site, why do I need this? If I'm not looking for a job or to find sales leads, why bother? Once you look at it from a content perspective, however, the benefit becomes clearer. Those â€Å"weak ties† provide you with â€Å"micro-nutrients† that your â€Å"strong ties† may not. Further investigation into the analogy of strong and weak bonds in physics is warranted, but the most immediate application in terms of content strategy is the serendipitous model of magazine content. If we consider content that a reader is looking for (through a Google search, for instance) to be strongly bonded, then the content they find along the way (in sidebars and various â€Å"asides† to use the html5 term) are weakly bonded. Magazines have always created content environments where their readers discover new things—and some of those things are advertisements. This serendipity of discovery is key to the pleasure of magazine reading and the financial success of the magazine business, but it has not translated all that well online. To end my observations I completely agree with this theory however I would like to bring an important aspect that a perfectly balanced strong and weaker ties help an individual to do the best and for the society at large. Thanks & Best Regards Pranav

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Research Paper - 1

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace - Research Paper Example Resultantly, most of the ladies were overtly fearful of disclosing their sexual harassment matters and occurrences at their workplaces since they feared being put to blame for being provocative. This happened since fear was still imminent and had not been eradicated. Though, there are workplaces with ladies who have the aptitude to take benefit of the prerogatives they hold in these regards and in relationship to the stipulations and how it shields women in the event of happening. In actuality, under the existing law system, the actuality that a woman belligerently trailed her boss, would not have essentially stopped her from organizing a harassment suit and probably contriving a believable settlement had she thereafter altered her thinking (Anna, 2005). Thus, it is overly clear as explicated, that ladies or women in workplaces know that, with reference to the law, they possess prerogatives in numerous cases. In this respect, it would be intricate to claim that ladies are under haras sment contemporarily, with regard to sexual persecution. However, numerous ladies have acquired the advantage of the docket of law when dealing with paltry cases surrounding sexual persecution that they could simply have faced personally, if not ignored completely. Furthermore, there exist numerous matters in the work areas that the administration deals with every time, amid interference with the management, administration or the stipulations of the law. Most persons, thus, assume that simply because a masculine may purport that a lady is beautiful or cute or summon her in various terms as â€Å"honey† he does not respect her. Alternatively, it may be well to declare that ladies’ harassment has been consummately... In actuality, under the existing law system, the actuality that a woman belligerently trailed her boss, would not have essentially stopped her from organizing a harassment suit and probably contriving a believable settlement had she thereafter altered her thinking (Anna, 2005). Thus, it is overly clear as explicated, that ladies or women in workplaces know that, with reference to the law, they possess prerogatives in numerous cases. In this respect, it would be intricate to claim that ladies are under harassment contemporarily, with regard to sexual persecution. However, numerous ladies have acquired the advantage of the docket of law when dealing with paltry cases surrounding sexual persecution that they could simply have faced personally, if not ignored completely.  Furthermore, there exist numerous matters in the work areas that the administration deals with every time, amid interference with the management, administration or the stipulations of the law. Most persons, thus, assu me that simply because a masculine may purport that a lady is beautiful or cute or summon her in various terms as â€Å"honey† he does not respect her. Alternatively, it may be well to declare that ladies’ harassment has been consummately truncated via the attention and discretion this subject has received throughout the entire media channels and additionally, through the law dimensional approach of the matter. Women no longer have to exhibit panic being sacked unreasonably other than she declined to have sexual advances with the boss.

Psychological and Psychoanalytical Aspects of Individual and Group Essay

Psychological and Psychoanalytical Aspects of Individual and Group Behaviour - Essay Example My diary work will follow a conglomeration of the attributes namely that of apprehension, leadership, psychological agreement, psychological development as well as transference. The sole motive behind selecting these issues is due to my belief that these issues will be affecting me enormously in both the sporting environment as well as an employment environment I obtained realization of the fact that interaction with the people is of great importance in life whether it be the people whom I have known well as well as those with whom I had very little interactions. In this respect the ushering of the group behavior provides us the scope for the development of individual behavior and problems of the society to the greatest possible extents. These problems are solved to the greater possible extent with the help of effective solutions which are applied most efficiently by the society under consideration in accordance with the opinions of people of the society. For expanding the horizon of my knowledge on these topics I concentrated on to the specific Freudian techniques for a transparent understanding. The knowledge associated with the psychological agreement has immensely benefitted me and I have become much more conscious about the fact that as psychological indenture is unwritten it can put stress on the workers and turmoil their presentation. This bears significant importance for me in the study of such an agreement as I am currently studying it and it may need longer study hours as what I consider my agreement to be possibly will not be reciprocally decided within the psychological agreement and hence it permits me to support myself for some displeasures if ever created upon such a situation. An instance of the psychological agreement within my profession as an assistance of a makeup artist is that my work manager might anticipate a certain customary of performance as she disburses for me and others as well to work. Now if I fail to convene the demanding volume of physical task it might lead to greater level of stress for me as well as in return permit the manager to conclude my working environment. I will be truthful and reveal the fact that my view of devolution was to disregard such a notion as I realised that I have provided people an opportunity before I made my mind clear up regarding their kind of character. Along with this, the notion completely disregards this view. This was merely a week previous to the first coursework where I have decided to assess my personal preference map as well my perception about the distinction of the authoritative shapes throughout my years. I can clearly state that change is a prime parameter within the domain of psychoanalysis as well as psychological field. This gets reflected in my opinion as an instance where I recognize the manager of the makeup company as my guide with the help of the use of change. I depict the coach as my guide because of the fact that the resemblances between them are eerie o r because of the fact that I am guided to think. My manager might be argued to be considerate, kind as well as understanding. Analysis of my manager resulted in inferring an ideal conclusion that these are several forms of changes where I have distinguished my manager just like my guide under the purview of change. The whole thought of

Face-to-face and distance training Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Face-to-face and distance training - Essay Example The paper tells that in the fields of social science it is recognised that two primary methods of research can prove to be most effective. The quantitative method is one in which research is formalised and structured, and numerically-based information is sought by the researcher, for primarily statistical analysis. Well-designed questionnaires, which use systems such as the Lickert scale to quantify responses to questions, are examples of quantitative methods of research. Reponses to questionnaires can then be grouped, organised and structured, assigned numerical values, analysed statistically, and statistical trends and conclusions can be drawn from data. Another method of research prevalent in the social science arena is qualitative. As implied by the term, this research is less reliant on numerical analysis. Communicated, recorded ideas and words from respondents are used by researchers to determine trends, and to draw conclusions. A less formal, though no less thoughtful, process is entered into to establish the responses, feelings, and responses of respondents, and the advantage of this research is that it relies on interaction between researcher and respondent. While non-quantified data results from interviews, for example, conclusions can still be drawn from meanings communicated by respondents, and the amount of data available to the researcher based on relatively more intimate interaction with the subject, can be most useful. 3.4Research design Weaknesses according to other researchers Boyd (2001) considers that two to ten participants in a research study are ample to reach valid conclusions and Creswell (1998, pp. 65 & 113) recommends â€Å"long interviews† with participants. Therefore some realistic assessment of participants’ attitudes, stemming from their personal experiences, is certainly possible from this sample. The concept of research design suggests that a framework and structure for the collection and analysis of data must be e stablished by the researcher (Bryman, 2008). Thus, an approach must be identified and developed and procedures adopted to undertake a particular study. According to the theory of research design, these approaches must emphasise the quality of the selected procedures to meet the definite research criteria (Kumar, 1996). Particularly in social science research, two research methods have proven to be of most use to researchers: the quantitative method and the qualitative method (Kvale, 1996). Quantitative research, as outlined above, serves more effectively to deal with the number-based data obtained from quantitative studies (Rudestam and Newton, 2007). In contrast, qualitative

Comparison Between Two Films Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Comparison Between Two Films - Assignment Example As most of the world, particularly the U.S., was trying to overlook the threat posed by the Germans and the discrimination of the Jews, Charlie Chaplin and the rest of the actors spoke up loudly against the discrimination in a humorous way (Maland 34). What makes these two films similar is the fact that they were both comedies that used humor to uncover and condemn the faults in the German political system. This paper will analyze two scene from each film and compare them to the other in aspects of their narrative structure (themes, characters and acting) and cinematography. On the second scene of the film, we observe the main actors of the last show, Joseph and Maria Tura, now acting in Hamlet. The two chat, and Joseph tries to convince Maria that he truly loves and adores her (Eyman 2). When he enters her room, he becomes overly jealous when he realizes that she has gotten flowers from a secret admirer for the third day in a row. After Joseph leaves the room, Maria informs her maid that she is sure they are from the attractive aviator, but reassures the maid that she too loves her husband, but he becomes offended by such small things. From this scene, we can see that Marias attitude appears to be that of a careless female who enjoys taunting men and making her spouse overly jealous. She appears to have few good motivations in life other than to be admired and loved (Eyman 2). Even as the movie continues, we observe that Maria only grows and matures when her country is in danger. Joseph, on the other hand, acts like a silly, haughty man when we initial ly see him. They have numerous passionate, but childish, arguments with Maria as they act, which makes us unsure of their matrimonial. Joseph becomes overly jealous and angry after and instead of acting like a gentleman, he turns into a raving lunatic for a while (Eyman 3). The central theme in this scene is

Creative Exercise Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Creative Exercise - Essay Example Instead, the government will rely on the business license renewals, sales taxes, real estate taxes, and other non-individual tax revenues for its operation. I will lead them into a world where education is of the utmost importance and yet costs the parent very little to spend on. It wont be hard to do this because the child will be home schooled by their parents, using the internet as the basis of their classroom setting. Standardized testing of the child will be done by the Department of Education thus, only the testing fees shall be charged as additional government revenue. The test will be the prerequisite to moving on to the next level of education just as in a regular school. The world that I envision is one where people will not want nor lack for anything because all the taxes collected shall go towards providing with public with as much free services as possible. This will include free medical services with nominal fees charged for major operations and procedures. Mine shall be a world with a government that is down-scaled because only the most necessary government offices shall be in place. Redundancy will not exist because government agencies will know how to multitask in the service of the people. The Utopian world that I shall lead the people to will take them back to the simpler times when people grew their own food and farming was the proud way of life that people used to sustain themselves. It is a world where sharing is the key to survival , not money. Of course I shall lead them towards this type of world and lifestyle to the best of my abilities. Whether I successfully lead them or not will depend upon whether they are willing to make sacrifices in order to achieve the utopian society that I will strive to create for everyone

Performance Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Performance Management - Essay Example The employees who are in lower levels than the management are disregarded. The management failed to comply with giving proper employee compensation and proper performance evaluation systems. The effort of achieving low operating expenses is often found the main reason why management is giving low compensation rate. The management's pay rate is set based on two other law firms: Melbourne-based and Sydney-based law firms. This type of political system is not good since it tries to limit the pay rate at some level, which in our study is of equal rate. This type of management is biased since it eliminates the employees' right in situations where pay rate is inversely proportional with its job functions. On the management's part it will only sound effective if the agreements between firms are followed. But the case was not, the management failed to climb up to the rate level imposed by the other two firms which led them behind in the competing market. The power to dictate market activitie s is unethical in nature. The fact that these market levels are set by business owners giving less consideration to the employees' part showed management's overuse of authority. 2-Within the case study organization, how should performance management be integrated with other management activities One of the main issues confronting management is employee management. Employees are often disregarded by some organization despite the fact that they are playing a very crucial role in the organization in achieving its goals. Employees are considered as one of the primary resources of any organization. Successful Human Resource Management is giving value to developing and motivating employees to cooperate towards achieving productive outputs. To motivate employees is to give them due respect, give them proper compensation, and maintain employment equality by avoiding discrimination in terms of rank and gender. In our case study, there are problems that the management needs to address: Equal employment opportunity, compensation, recruitment and retention. All of these are the main functions of HR department, and are all affected by systems of performance management. Performance management should be integrated with other management activities since though these activities differ from e ach other in lots of ways, but the bottom line is still the same. These are all directed towards high productivity rate, cutting down operational expenses, and maintaining competitive advantage. As stated, the firm is dominated mostly by males. In the issue of equal employment opportunity, it is biased to give female employees lowly levels in the organization. In the issue of recruitment, selection, and retention of employees, the management should consider the value of hiring employees that fits the qualifications needed for any vacant positions. The picture of a male dominated organization should be wiped out. Every individual should be given equal employment opportunity regardless of gender, age or disabilities as long as he/she is found effective and qualified for any position being applied. Employee selection system should be clear on the viewpoint of any organization to encourage new applicants, and existing employees could clearly see that the organization treats all employee s equally and considers them valuable. The compensation system of the firm is not effective. The procedure of how the compensation system work should be clear at the viewpoint of the employees. Performance appraisal is playing a very important role in determining the proper compensatio

Fitzgeralds Translation of Omar Khayyam Coursework

Fitzgeralds Translation of Omar Khayyam - Coursework Example The best part of his poems was composed during his youth in the quiet and beautiful landscape of Nishpur. The translated version of his famous Rubaiyat (Quatrains) was first published by Edward Fitzgerald in 1859, which made him famous throughout the Western world. "If the mood expressed in the famous Quatrains", says Gibbs, "is not the most heroic or exalted, none-the-less they caught the exact tone of the age, and voiced it as perfectly as eight centuries earlier they had voiced the published hedonism of the cultured society of Isfahan". "Postcolonialism" is the revaluation of Western culture's conception of itself in the light of the repressed history of exploitation of "other" peoples on which Western economic well-being and distribution of wealth is based (Robert 2003, p. 1). Postcolonial criticism is characterized by a skepticism concerning those liberal notions of moral and political justice which historically co-existed happily with iniquitous colonial practices. Consistent with this critique, it also tries to reformulate more plausible concepts for understanding what actually took place under colonialism, redeeming past events from colonial ideologies of improvement from liberation, and evolving new categories for mapping a resistant world from the colonized point of view. In discussing historical work of Omar Khayyam it becomes more and more natural to equate historical differences with cultural differences. The problems faced by the Edward Fitzgerald crossing historical boundaries are so similar to those of the cultural anthropologist that no apology for this conflation looks necessary. Both hermeneutical acts are so closely allied in procedure and intent that we easily forget their differences, or that one must, in some sense, be a metaphor for the other. Or perhaps 'metonym' for the other is more accurate, if assumption of that continuity with the past enabling dialogue is extended or reinforced by the parallel of interpreting Omar Khayyam's cultures. Since cultures are frequently contemporaneous with out own, they can, if allowed, talk back in a more straightforward manner than the past. Equally, interpreters of historical difference (like Fitzgerald) maintain the parallel at their end by understanding as a king of translation the effort by which they try to register the Omar's voice in which the past replies to their questions, a translation which may involve alterations to the language into which the translation passes. When Edward Fitzgerald entered the altered landscape of another culture, he chose not only to translate classical meanings into English meanings but also to "transpose"1 certain alien habits of speech and thought. He did this because, like all great poets, he cared about language and form, and knew that the language of English poetry itself would be strengthened and enriched by the minor violations to which he was willing to subject it. He also found the ancient world itself was far from being a uniform field. Edward Fitzgerald risks distorting the English language under the pressure of translating into it an alien form. But the deterrent of confronting difficulty is a strengthening and enriching of the poet's language. This

Enron Corporation Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Enron Corporation - Article Example This proved to be a blatant violation of the accounting rules and eventually led to the mess that resulted in the bankruptcy of Enron and criminal prosecution of several Enron employees. Secondly, Mr. Kenneth Lay held a great deal of responsibility because he spearheaded the overstatement of Enron's income for four years prior to the bankruptcy. This effectively and efficiently led to his conviction for securities fraud, wire fraud and making false and misleading statements. Thirdly, Mr. David Duncan held some of the responsibility because he was aware that there were violations with regards to the rules of bookkeeping and was bounded by the ethics of his profession to report such violations. By not doing this, he was responsible to some degree for the final collapse of Enron. Fourthly, the accounting firm of Arthur Andersen held the responsibility because they were hired as auditors to ensure that the accounting rules were being followed. At any point during the audit, they could ha ve reported the misdoings of the Enron officials. Finally, the stock analysts held some blame because they continued to recommend Enron stocks even after the value of shares in the Enron Corporation fall drastically in late 2001. 2.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Example for Free

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay Introduction Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that presents in form of anxiety disorder, and it usually develops following exposure to an event or incident that is terrifying and mostly associated with an increased risk or actual occurrence of severe body harm. These events exceed the coping capabilities of the individual, resulting into psychological trauma. As a result of the trauma, the affected individual develops fear conditioning in their brain, possibly because of certain brain chemicals that are released. Some structures in the brain are also thought to undergo atrophy. The risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder is also influenced by genetics and personal characteristics, for example childhood experience, previous exposure and preexisting conditions such as depression, gender and degree of exposure to trauma (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Most people who develop this condition are those who have been exposed to traumatic incidents in their childhood or adulthood, like natural disasters, manmade disasters, accidents, military combat, and violent physical abuse, as individuals or witnessing someone else undergo the incidents. About two thirds of the population worldwide becomes exposed to significant traumatic situations in the course of their lifetime. The level of exposure to or experience of a traumatic event is consistently associated with the likelihood of developing PSTD. The development of post traumatic stress disorder also shows significant correlation with poor socioeconomic settings, age, race, ethnicity, and employment status. The affected people undergo continuous frightening thoughts as they recall the terrifying experiences, often having sleep problems and feeling detached and becoming withdrawn. The patients develop psychological problems such as neuroticism, guilt, difficulties in concentration, poor coping skills, and obsessive symptoms. The level of social support available for the people who have been exposed to traumatic events is the strongest determinant of the risk of post traumatic stress disorder (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Post traumatic stress disorder is classified as acute, chronic or delayed onset. Acute posttraumatic stress disorder presents with symptoms that do not persist beyond three months, while in the chronic form the symptoms last more than three months. Delayed onset post traumatic stress disorder is the one in which the symptoms start appearing about six months following exposure to the traumatic event. As compared to normal stress that is usually associated with acute reactions that rapidly return to the normal state, the biological and psychological mechanisms in post traumatic stress disorder are chronic and often become severe with time (Fullerto n Ursano, 2005). Current treatment of post traumatic stress disorder includes exposure therapies and anxiety management trainings as the first-line treatments. Pharmacological therapies such as the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have also been designed and shown to be effective, though intensive studies are in progress to develop other form of drugs. In spite of the possible efficacy of pharmaceutical interventions, psychological treatments still remain the preferred therapeutic approaches for this disorder (Keane, Marshall Taft, 2006). The outcome of the therapeutic interventions depends on the level of social support, and lack of symptoms such as avoidance, emotional numbing and hyperarousal. According to Keane, Marshall and Taft (2006), PSTD has been in existence for many centuries though it became recognized in the 1980. This condition was commonly linked to warfare, until studies demonstrated the occurrence of similar symptoms in the civilian population exposed to natural disasters, mass catastrophes and tragic accidents. Prior to this, post traumatic stress disorder was identified by different names such as, â€Å"shell shock, battle fatigue, accident neurosis, and post-rape syndrome† (Keane, Marshall Taft 2006, p.163). After the American Psychiatric Association classified post traumatic stress disorder, it was generally agreed that the condition resulted from traumatic events and not the previously perceived individual weakness. However, these traumatic events were taken to be stressors beyond the daily human experiences including war, natural calamities, manmade disasters, and rape among others. Symptoms of PSTD Symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder frequently alter the patient’s personal life and can affect one’s functional abilities. These symptoms mostly start immediately after the traumatic experience, but often they may appear several months or years since the exposure. These symptoms are classified into four types including reliving, avoidance, numbing and hyperarousal (Fletcher, 1996). Patients suffering from this disorder frequently relive memories of the traumatic incidents in form of flashback and nightmares. This reliving of traumatic events is often triggered by stimuli related to the event. Avoidance of scenes related to the traumatic event is also a common symptom presenting in individuals with post traumatic stress disorder. The patients show a tendency to avoid stimuli and triggers that are associated with the traumatic memories, and may engage in activities to keep them from thinking or discussing such events. Numbness may also manifest as a way of avoiding the traumatic memories. Hyperarousal is another common symptom in PSTD patients, whereby the victims become highly alert and lookout for threats. This makes the patients to become very irritable and have difficulties in concentrating. The patients may also develop sleeping disorders, exhibit violent behavior and startled responses (Rosen, 2004). Information processing in patients with PSTD Various models have been developed to explain the memory and concentration problems manifested by patients affected by post traumatic stress disorder. These models relate the cognitive problems with these patients with the changes in the brain structures that function in learning and memory. The first model is described as fear structure, whereby the brain of the affected individuals become programmed to process information associated with the threatening experience and subsequent physiological, physical and behavioral responses. Another information processing model is based on cognitive theory, with an assumption that the disorder progresses only if a person perceives the traumatic incident in a manner that makes the incident to become threatening after it has taken place. The perception of the trauma as being present results into intrusions and reliving symptoms, anxiety, and over alertness. Subsequently, the affected individual tries to decrease perceptions of the threat through behavioral and cognitive modifications, although these changes further perpetuate the symptoms (Rosen, 2004). Prevalence of PSTD Epidemiologic studies indicate that about 10 percent of the universal population experience PSTD at some point in their lifetime. Epidemiologic surveys also indicate that between a third and two-thirds of the world population experience or witness trauma at some point in life. The most common forms of traumatic events people get exposed to or experience in developed countries include grave harm or death, fire disasters, natural calamities, and life-threatening accidents. The most prevalent forms of trauma experienced by females are rape, sexual exploitation and abuse, physical assault, and neglect, while physical assault and military-related trauma are more prevalent in males (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Post traumatic stress disorder can occur at any age, and the period it takes to develop following exposure or experiencing of a traumatic event ranges from hours to years. The prevalence of PSTD in the general population is higher in females as compared to males, with an estimated prevalence of 10 percent and 5 percent respectively. Among individuals exposed to trauma, the prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder in males is 8 percent, while in females it is about 20 percent. The prevalence differences across gender lines are thought to be related to the specific form of trauma experienced. For instance, it has been shown that females who experience physical assault or are threatened with a weapon are at a high risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder as compared to men subjected to the same trauma. Similarly, males who experience sexual abuse are at a higher risk of developing PSTD as compared to the females who also experience the same stressor. Additionally, exposure to interpersonal violence among women is positively associated with later development of post traumatic stress disorder. In general, exposure to interpersonal violence is s trongly associated with the development of PSTD as compared to traumatic events that occur without a human perpetrator. Further studies show that of the entire population that experience or witness severe trauma at some point in their life, it is less than 20 percent who develop post traumatic stress disorder, thus suggesting the existence of many risk factors (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). The prevalence is significantly increased in countries where rates of violence, crimes and war are high, and also in parts of the world that are more prone to natural catastrophes. Younger age appears to be associated with a higher risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder (Keanne, Marshall, Taft, 2006). Meta analysis studies have also shown that children and teenagers who get exposed to traumatic events are 1.5 times likely to develop post traumatic stress disorder than adults exposed to the same trauma. These findings suggest that the developmental process of the disorder in young individuals varies from that of the adults. Lower education achievement is also associated with increased risk for this disorder. Other factors associated with high prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder include pre-existing psychiatric problems, juvenile delinquency, childhood adversity, personality disorders, genetic factors, severity of the trauma, and lack of social support (Schnurr, Friedman Bernardy, 2002). Though findings on race are not consistent, a strong correlation has been shown to exist between the race of a person and the development of post traumatic disorder. Some studies have indicated that whites have a lower risk of developing post traumatic stress disorder as compared to nonwhites, even when other risk factors like exposure to traumatic events are held constant (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Study findings have established that chronic PSTD is mostly associated with some psychiatric conditions and impaired psychosocial activities. Among these comorbid conditions include, â€Å"major depression, dysthemia, mania, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, simple phobia, agoraphobia, alcohol abuse/dependence, drug abuse, social phobia, and conduct disorder† (Schnurr, Friedman Bernardy 2002, p. 880). Despite these psychiatric conditions being risk factors for post traumatic stress disorder, the disorder itself can also be a predisposing factor for the psychiatric conditions. Etiology of PSTD The major etiologic factor in PSTD is the trauma. However, various studies have shown that not all individuals who get exposed to same traumatic events develop the disorder, thus indicating the existence of certain predisposing conditions. Recognition that trauma alone may not be the sole cause of post traumatic stress disorder and the observations that not all people who get exposed to traumatic events develop the disorder have led to identification of various aspects where individual differences may determine vulnerability. These aspects include appraisal tendencies, genetic makeup, and certain risk factors (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Appraisal tendencies relate to the individual perceptions of situations or events, whereby some individuals are likely to consider situation or events as threatening or horrifying as compared to other individuals. Clinical studies have shown that many individuals who experience or witness traumatic events do not develop post traumatic stress disorder. This is attributed to the individual variations on the ability to cope with traumatic situations, thus different individuals possess differing psychological reactions to similar traumatic situations. It has, therefore, been recognized that exposure to traumatic events gets perceived through cognitive and emotional mechanisms involving appraisal (Vieweg et al., 2006). Whereas some individuals may perceive a situation or event as a huge threat, others may perceive the same situation as a challenge that demands them to evolve coping abilities. A number of risk factors that render some people more vulnerable to developing post traumatic stress disorder than others have been identified. These risk factors are classified as pre-traumatic, traumatic or post-traumatic (Vieweg et al., 2006). Pre-traumatic factors that may predict later development of post traumatic stress disorder as identified by various studies are childhood trauma, the existence of psychiatric problems, childhood maladaptive behaviors, poor family background, introversion, gender, and existence of physical health problems among others. Studies on early periods of development show an increasing relationship between early life trauma and a greater likelihood for the development of PSTD (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006; Edsall, Karnik Steiner, 2005). This hypothesis is, however, supported by few data obtained from small samples. But still, it is well established that childhood abuse and experience of other trauma early in life are partially responsible for the manifestation of post PSTD later in life in the general adult population. In a study carried out in the USA by MaCauley et al. (1997), it was shown that a significantly high number of women with a greater disposition to develop post traumatic stress disorder had undergone early life physical assault, sexual abuse or serious neglect. The study investigated about 2000 adult females drawn from different socioeconomic groups, and who were attending primary care internal medicine practices. McCauley and colleagues found that 22 percent of the study population experienced many physical symptoms with much higher levels of, â€Å"depression, anxiety, somatization and interpersonal sensitivity, a fivefold higher prevalence of drug abuse and a twofold higher level of alcohol abuse† (McCauley et al. 1997, p. 1367). In general, the data supports the established models of risk for the development of PSTD, whereby genetic predisposition, temperament and childhood or adulthood trauma are significant risks factors for PSTD development. Therefore, the recent trauma experienced by an individual also triggers the development of post traumatic stress disorder. This has been shown to arise from the effects of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), which is a hormone involved in regulating the autonomic, immune and behavioral reactions to any stress. Increased secretion of corticotropin releasing factor is associated with increased expression of psychiatric symptoms, including PSTD symptoms (Sapolsky, 1996). With regard to traumatic factors, many studies on post traumatic stress disorder have shown that there exists a direct relationship between severity of the trauma and subsequent development of the disorder. The severity of the trauma includes characteristics like the length of time the trauma took, the frequency of occurrence and the degree of harm or threat on life. Other aspects of the severity of trauma are the severity of the experience, whether somebody was harmed during the incident, whether the victim was involved directly or witnessed the trauma, and in case of sexual abuse, if the perpetrator of the atrocity was previously known to the victim. The severity of the trauma and PSTD are very consistent in the entire population, with high severity associated with increased risk for post traumatic stress disorder or severity of its symptoms (Edsall, Karnik Steiner, 2005). Studies have also shown that the post traumatic environment is also connected to later development of PSTD. Environments that are characterized by poor social support and disoriented social interaction patterns make people more vulnerable to develop post traumatic stress disorder (Ford, 2009). It has been shown that people who experience traumatic events such as rape victims and war veterans suffer from deleterious effects due to lack of post traumatic social support. Similarly, a number of studies have shown that post traumatic clinical interventions like debriefing are effective preventing later development of PSTD. Pathophysiology of PSTD Major psychobiologic processes that give human beings capabilities to effectively deal with stressful events have been shown to be impaired in individuals having PSTD. Among the affected processes include the fight and flight responses, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, the fear conditioning, appraisal and the acoustic startle reactions (Ford, 2009). The fight and flight responses are brought about by the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. In normal persons, the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system by a traumatic event results into a sequence of autonomic and muscular responses, which provide the person with capabilities to cope with the possible threat. However in people who have PSTD, it has been established that sympathetic nervous system responses and adrenergic dysregulation are excessively elevated. Even minor trauma related stimuli have been observed to trigger autonomic hyperresponsiveness. It has also been found that the amount of catecholamine in the urine of the victim is significantly increased. Other sympathetic nervous system abnormalities observed include, â€Å"down regulation of beta-2 and alpha-2 adrenergic receptors and increased reactivity to the alpha-2 antagonist yohimbine† (Ford 2009, p. 37). Increased reactivity of yohimbine is associated with triggering of panic attacks and trauma-related memories in people suffering from PSTD. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system also acts to enhance the ability of people to cope effectively with stress. In patients who are experiencing post traumatic stress disorder, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system is poorly modulated and the victims exhibit abnormal features like decreased amounts of cortisol in urine, increased amounts of lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor and excessively inhibited dexamethasone (Sapolsky, 1996). Another psychobiologic process that has been shown to be impaired in patients with PSTD is the acoustic startle response. In normal individuals, the acoustic startle system helps in creating awareness of any possible threat. However, in patients affected by the disorder, they exhibit a reduced latency and elevated amplitude in acoustic-startle-eyeblink reflex. Besides, the patients also show marginally reduced normal dysregulation of the startle reflex (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Fear conditioning mechanisms have also been shown to be impaired in patients with PSTD. In normal individuals, fear conditioning mechanisms facilitate the storage of information relating to exposure or experience of aversive and threatening events, thus providing one with capabilities to cope with similar challenges in future (Fullerton Ursano, 2005). Studies have, however, shown that people who suffer from this disorder exhibit a characteristic progression of the fear conditioning, evoking excessive emotion al responses to perceived threats (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012). Appraisal process has also been shown to be diminished in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Appraisal is a psychological process through which people develop capabilities to determine the nature of an event or situation, whether it is pleasant, challenging or threatening. This in turn determines the coping, adapting and survival abilities of the individual. Patients with PSTD lack these abilities and often perceive the world as unsafe, leading to development of deleterious cognitive, emotional and behavioral effects. (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012) Another possible pathophysiologic mechanism involved in posttraumatic stress disorder relates to brain abnormalities in terms of structure and function (Ford, 2009). Various studies using magnetic resonance imaging techniques have demonstrated that the hippocampus volume in patients who suffer from PSTD who were previously exposed to traumatic events is significantly decreased (Fletcher, Creamer Forbes, 2010). These findings have been supported by animal studies, which have shown that continued stress causes hippocampus degeneration and loss of function of apical dendrite nerve cells. It has been hypothesized that this degeneration is as a result of secretion of neurotoxic amino acids by the increased quantities of glucocorticoids. Studies using positron emission tomography have also indicated some functional brain abnormalities in individuals who are affected by PSTD. These studies have suggested elevated regional cerebral circulatory around the limbic and paralimbic regions. These regions play a role in the recognition and processing of emotions and stimuli, thus signifying their possible functions in the regulation of fear conditioning and appraisal (Rosen, 2004). Neurobiological aspects of PSTD Traumatic events directly stimulate the catecholamine system, triggering fight and flight responses such as rates of cardiac activity, blood circulation, metabolism, and alertness. Subsequently, the hypothalamus is stimulated to release corticotropin-releasing hormone, thus activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis due to the resultant stimulation of the pituitary gland and subsequent release of adrenocorticotropin hormone (Fullerton Ursano, 2005) Furthermore, cortisol is secreted by the adrenal glands, leading to increased stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. All these responses serve to provide a person with coping and survival abilities when faced with a threatening or dangerous situation. However when the trauma experienced or witnessed is chronic, these fight and flight responses often become counterproductive. Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis finally restores cortisol to normal levels through a negative feedback mechanism. In some instan ces, however, the catecholamine system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis may become poorly modulated, thus impeding normal trauma- and stress-related responses and leading to development of the deleterious effects of PSTD (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). Various studies have shown that poor modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and increased amounts of catecholamine generated by trauma adversely impair neuronal development in the brain. This occurs through different mechanisms such as increased degeneration of the nerve cells, impairment of the myelination process, reduction of the quantity and size of dendritic processes, impairment in neural pruning, suppression of the synthesis of nerve cells, and a reduction in the synthesis of neutrophic factor by the brain cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002). Exposure to traumatic events has also been shown to cause certain structural changes in the nervous system, including â€Å"reduced corpus callosum size, attenuated development of the left neocortex, hippocampus and amygdala, enhanced electrical irritability in limbic structures, and reduced functional activity of the cerebellar vermis† (Edsall, Karnik Steiner 2005, p. 110). The parts of the brain that become impacted by traumatic events have been shown to exhibit postnatal development for long periods of time, possess increased levels of glucocorticoid receptors and some formation of the nerve cells in the postnatal period. The above damages to the regions of the brain may cause the affected person to develop socialization, attachment, bonding and cognitive problems. The Catecholamine system and Trauma Studies have shown that trauma may affect the catecholamine system, as demonstrated by the increased levels of noreadrenaline and dopamine excreted in urine in people with PSTD. It has also been shown that the concentration of the catecholamine in urine in the patients relates to the length of time one is exposed to the traumatic event, and also to the severity of the disorder cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002). The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Trauma Investigations on the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the development of post traumatic stress disorder have indicated that affected children have elevated basal amounts of cortisal, while the affected adults have reduced amounts. The reduced cortisol levels in adults who are suffering from chronic PSTD is thought to be caused by the down-regulation of the anterior pituitary corticotropin-releasing hormone binding sites following the increase in corticotropin-releasing hormone levels, in addition to the increased negative feedback suppression of cortisol amounts by the pituitary gland. The down regulation process is considered as an adaptation response against the chronically increased amounts of cortisol, which may cause neurotoxicity cells (Schnurr, Friedman, Bernardy, 2002). Other studies have hypothesized the decreased baseline cortisal amounts in adults to result from adrenal insufficiency and chronically reduced secretion of cortisal from the adrenal glands. This hypothesis is supported by findings that adults with post traumatic stress disorder show increased adrenocorticotropin hormonal response to corticotropin releasing factor than normal persons (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). The observations that the baseline cortisal amounts are increased in children who have been exposed to traumatic situations have post traumatic disorder indicates different physiological impacts compared to adults, though similar studies have yielded contrasting results indicating the cortisal levels to be increased. The variations in baseline cortisol amounts among children may be related to factors such as developmental stage of the child during the trauma experience and the period of time that has passed since the trauma occurred (Wolfgang et al., 2012). It is generally suggested that corticotropin releasing hormone and cortisol amounts are increased acutely after exposure to trauma, while developmental effects of the traumatic experience result into reduced amounts of cortisol because of the consistently increased corticotropin releasing hormone and the raised hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis negative feedback mechanism (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). Functional and structural changes in the brain due to traumatic stress A number of literatures continue to indicate that glucocorticoids have some effects on the hippocampus in individuals who are suffering from post traumatic stress disorder. Most of these studies have demonstrated a reduction of the hippocampus in adult individuals with PSTD. The atrophy of the hippocampus is also reported in various conditions characterized by excessive secretion of glucocorticoid, such as the Cushing syndrome and recurrent major depressive disorder. Further, it has also been demonstrated that the neurotoxic effects of glucocorticoid may be due to chronically increased levels of excitatory amino acids like glutamate (Sapolsky, 1996). Studies using magnetic resonance imaging have shown that adults previously exposed to trauma and who have developed post traumatic stress disorder have significantly decreased hippocampus volumes. Hippocampal atrophy has, however, not been observed in children suffering from this disorder. Instead, these children have, â€Å"smaller intracranial, cerebral, and prefrontal cortex, prefrontal cortical white matter, right temporal lobe volumes, and smaller areas of the corpus callosum† (Edsall, Karnik Steiner 2005, p. 114). These neurobiological observations are possibly caused by reduced cortical hemispheres communication because of memory impairment and dissociative disorders associated with PSTD (Sapolsky, 1996). The differences in brain structure between adults and children suffering from PSTD has been hypothesized to arise from co-occurrence of other disorders such as those associated with drug and alcohol abuse in adults. It is also suggested that stress response tend to gradual, thus the neurobiological changes develop over time. Many brain structures, including the hippocampus are known to continue developing after birth. Studies have established that the hippocampus depicts increased formation of axons, dendrites, synapses and receptors, which become pruned after puberty (Vieweg et al., 2006). Generally, these studies indicate that traumatic experiences during the early years of life cause progressive developmental impacts on the brain, hence implying that the development of post traumatic stress disorder, to some extent, is determined by the stage of neural development of a person (Sapolsky, 1996). It is also suggested that hippocampus atrophy may be a risk factor for the development of PSTD. This is based on comparison studies of twins who have post traumatic stress disorder exposed and those who did not have the disorder with other normal individuals. The study demonstrated that both the twins exposed to trauma and those not exposed had reduced hippocampi volumes as compared to the control group (Sapolsky, 1996). As regards to metabolic alterations in the brain of people with PSTD, various studies using positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging techniques have been carried mostly in adults. These studies have indicated higher activities in the amygdale and anterior paralimbic areas, and reduced activity around the anterior cingulated and orbitofrontal sections in patients with PSTD (Havard Women’s Health Watch, 2005). Assessment of Trauma and PSTD Assessment of trauma is the initial phase in the diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder. It involves assessing if a person has experienced a traumatic situation, and identifying the situations that the person has had exposure to. The event or situation has to be evaluated whether it is life threatening. This is a significant step since symptoms of the disorder like re-experiencing, avoidance, numbing, arousal, and concentration difficulties need to be examined against particular events. PSTD is assessed through a cluster of three symptoms including re-experiencing, avoidance and arousal. Appearance of the symptoms should be determined, whether they started immediately following exposure to the trauma and whether the symptoms are progressively increasing (Robertson, Humphreys Ray, 2004). Diagnosis of PSTD Diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder is based on certain set of criteria, which are six in number. The first criterion is the demonstration of the existence of a stressor. An individual must have been exposed to, experienced or threatened with a situation where death or physical harm was eminent or real. The second criterion is the existence of re-experiencing symptoms, whereby the affected individual persistently perceives imaginary threats witnessed or experienced before. This mostly occurs as flashbacks and the affected individual feels and behaves as if the trauma is repeating. Re-experiencing may also come in form of distressing memories and nightmares, particularly when the person faced with situations related to the trauma. In some cases, the patients may present with physiological or psychological stress reactions such as full-blown panic attacks. The third criterion for diagnosis is the existence of avoidance and numbing symptoms (Robertson, Humphreys Ray, 2004). Individuals presenting with this disorder often try to escape trauma-related thoughts and actions and regularly present with reduced capabilities to engage in pleasure activities, difficulty in recalling some dimensions of the trauma, withdrawal from social activities, and detachment. The forth criterion includes observation of symptoms related to hyperarousal and hypervigilance. In this criterion, persons affected by post traumatic stress disorder may exhibit features such as lack of concentration, irritability, and disturbed sleep patterns. The fifth criterion is the demonstration that re-experiencing symptoms, avoidance of actions and thoughts related to trauma, withdrawal, and irritability, and lack of concentration, disturbed sleep patterns, and irritability symptoms have occurred persistently for more than one month. The last criterion is the demonstration that the combined symptoms impairs with the functional and social abilities of the affected individual, coupled with significant distress. Under this criterion, the existence of PSTD is ruled out if the patient presents with mild symptoms or when the person exhibits competent functional abilities (Wolfgang et al., 2012). Treatment of PSTD The major treatment intervention measures for patients who have post traumatic stress disorder are, â€Å"cognitive behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy and individual and group dynamic therapy† (Wolfgang et al. 2012, p. 72). Cognitive-behavioral Therapy This is the most effective form of treatment currently available for PSTD. The main approaches to cognitive-behavioral therapy involve exposure therapy and anxiety management interventions. Exposure therapies mostly focus on the elimination of the strong effects caused by fear conditioning in people suffering from post traumatic stress disorder. These therapeutic approaches are based on the recognition that consistent exposure to perceived threats helps in decreasing the victim’s fear response to stimuli associated with trauma. Further, exposure therapy also helps in lessening the victim’s sympathetic nervous system and adrenergic hyperactivity triggered by trauma related stimuli (Wolfgang et al., 2012). Anxiety management interventions are usually geared towards equipping the patient with skills that can help in decreasing anxiety. These strategies, therefore, involve training the patient on areas like relaxation, social skills, stress management, and cognitive restructuring among others. Cognitive restructuring is the most preferred training since it helps patients to be able to correct the impaired appraisal mechanisms, thus lessening their tendency to perceive threats from unwarranted situations. Cognitive-behavioral therapy can be provided on individual basis or in a group. In group psychotherapy, the patients are given trainings through psychoeducation, exposure and cognitive processing (Vieweg et al., 2006). Pharmacotherapy Based on the identified neurobiological abnormalities that accompany post traumatic stress disorder, pharmacotherapeutic interventions can help in the treatment of many associated symptoms such as anxiety, depression and insomnia. Pharmacotherapy is often essential before induction of the patient to other therapeutic approaches like cognitive-behavioral therapy and psychodynamic therapy (Gibson, 2012). Many studies on the efficacy of antidepressants such as imipramine and fluoxetine have generated mixed results, often indicating that patients having severe and chronic PSTD show refractory responses towards these medications. Clinical trials on the effectiveness of anti-adrenergic drugs like propranolol and clonidine also yield promising results, indicating the possible benefits in treating this disorder (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012). Dynamic psychotherapy This form of therapy involves encouraging the patient to make free association of ideas and feelings, while allowing the psychotherapist to make interpretations of the implications of the associations. The psychotherapist also provides recommendations depending on the comprehension of the situations and the perceived causes of the symptoms. The main objective of this form of therapy is to unravel the exact nature of the patient’s psyche so as to help in managing the psychic tension (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012).This therapy approach, therefore, relies on the establishment of an interpersonal relationship between the patient and the psychotherapist. It can be applied in various contexts such as in individual psychotherapy, group psychotherapy, and family therapy among other areas. In dealing with PSTD patients, the dynamic psychotherapy approach mostly targets the creation of a trustworthy and safe environment so as to enable the patient reveal the hidden traumatic experiences. Once the traumatic content has been obtained, focus shifts to analysis of the trauma in detail and examinations of the re-experiences together with the avoidance symptoms. Patients are finally guided to disengage from the perceived threat and make appropriate reconnections in their social life (Wisco, Marx Keanne, 2012). Recommendations Because of the increased rates of traumatic experiences in the world nowadays, prevalence of PSTD is anticipated to increase with time. It is imperative that more research be carried out to develop appropriate prevention and early intervention measures to curb the disorder (Keanne, Marshall Taft, 2006). These measures should be based on the already established risk factors for the disorder and should mainly target individuals exhibiting acute stress symptoms so that early cognitive-behavioral interventions are given. It is also important that further research be carried out on the neurobiological aspect of posttraumatic stress disorder, particularly in children (Rosen, 2004). These studies will provide more information regarding functional and structural alterations in the brain associated with this disorder to enable designing of appropriate diagnosis tools. Conclusion Post traumatic stress disorder is an anxiety disorder presumed to be caused by traumatic experiences. However, many individuals exposed to traumatic events do not develop the disorder. In addition, the prevalence of the disorder in people who have been traumatized is low, thus indicating the existence of other certain risk factors that predispose some individuals to develop the disorder. Intensive studies have helped in creating more understanding of the function of the risk factors in the development of the disorder, and subsequent development of treatment approaches. Despite various interventions such as CBT and pharmacotherapy aiding in management of PSTD, there is need to conduct more studies to establish measures that can be used as early interventions and proper diagnostic tools for PSTD. References Edsall, S., Karnik, N. Steiner, H. (2005). â€Å"Childhood trauma.† In, Clinical child psychiatry, 2nd ed, Eds. Klykylo, W. and Kay, J. London: John Wiley sons. Fletcher, K. (1996). Childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. New York, NY: Guildford Publications Inc. Fletcher, S., Creamer, M. Forbes, D. (2010). Preventing post traumatic stress disorder: Are drugs the answer? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44, 1064-1071. Ford, J. D. (2009). Post traumatic stress disorder: Science and practice. New York, NY: Academic Press. Fullerton, C. S. Ursano, R. J. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Acute and long-term responses to trauma and disaster. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press. Gibson, C. (2012). Review of posttraumatic stress disorder and chronic pain: The path to integrated care. JRRD, 49(5), 753-776. Harvard Women’s Health Watch. (2005). Not getting over it: Post-traumatic stress disorder. Keanne, T. M., Marshall, A. D. Taft, C. T. (2006) . Posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, epidemiology, and treatment outcome. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 161-197. McCauley, J., Kern, D. E., Kolodner, K., Dill, L., Schroeder, A. F., DeChant, H. K., rydden, J., Derogatis, L. R. Bass, E. B. (1997). Clinical characteristics of women with a history of childhood abuse: Unhealed wounds. JAMA, 277, 1362-1368. Robertson, M., Humphreys, L. Ray, R. (2004). Psychological treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: Recommendations for the clinician based on a review of literature. J Psychiatr Pract, 10(2): 106-18. Rosen, G. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Issues and controversies. West Sussex: John Wiley Sons. Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Stress, glucocorticoids, and damage to the nervous system: The current state of confusion. Stress, 1(1), 1-19. Schnurr, P. P., Friedman, M. J. Bernardy, N. C. (2002). Research on posttraumatic stress disorder: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and assessment. Journal of Clinical Psycholog y, 58(8), 877-889. Vieweg, W. V., Julius, D. A., Fernandez, A., Beatty-Brooks, M., Hettema, J. M. Pandurangi, A. K. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Clinical features, pathophysiology, and treatment. Am J Med, 119(5), 383-390. Wisco, B. E., Marx, B. P. Keane, T. M. (2012). Screening, diagnosis, and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Military Medicine, 177(8), 7-13. Wolfgang, W., Falk, L., Frank, L. Johannes, K. (2012). Psychodynamic psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood abuse- principles for a treatment manual. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 76(1), 69-93.

Segmenting the British Sports market Essay Example for Free

Segmenting the British Sports market Essay Introduction Sport England is the government agency responsible for building the foundations of sporting success, by creating a world-leading community sport environment of clubs, coaches, facilities and volunteers. They want to create a vibrant sporting culture working in partnership with national governing bodies, national partners, the HE/FE sector, local government, county sport partnerships and community organizations. Their focus is around three outcomes growing and sustaining the numbers of people taking part in sport and improving talent development to help more people excel. Five targets which will see us deliver these outcomes: 1. Grow   More people taking part in more sport   More children and young people taking part in five hours of PE and sport a week These targets account for 15% of the investment. 2. Sustain   More people satisfied with their sporting experience   25% fewer 16-18 year olds dropping out of at least nine sports badminton. basketball, football, hockey, gymnastics, netball, rugby league, rugby union tennis These targets account for 60% of the investment. 3. Excel   Improved talent development in at least 25 sports This target accounts for 25% of the investment. 4. What does our work involve? We invest expertise, resources and both government and Lottery money into community sport. ?480 million is invested directly through 46 national governing bodies of sport. And there are five open funding streams other organizations can apply to. We have a statutory role in protecting playing fields and must be consulted if community playing fields are threatened by potential developments. We provide a wealth of expertise and advice on range of sports subjects including planning, facilities, coaching, and volunteering and sports development. And we act as advocates for community sport bringing together a wide range of partners from local and national government, the commercial sector, higher and further education and the third sector to make the most of their investment in sport. 5. Who do we work with? To succeed, we have to work closely with a wide range of organizations, including:   Our sporting landscape partners Youth Sport Trust and UK Sport   National governing bodies of sport   National partners   Local authorities   County sports partnerships   Higher and further education   The third sector   The commercial sector. London Organizing Committee of the Olympic Games and the Olympic Delivery Authority. Questions 1. Using the full spectrum of segmentation variables, describe how Sport England has segmented the sports market? In order to understand the British people’s attitudes and motivations about sports, Sport England has developed 19 sporting segments all around the United Kingdom to target its customers in the sports market. In the segmentation process Sport England worked closely with Experian Business Strategies consulting group and analyzed data of the English people aged 18 and older. Each of the 19 segment profiles contains information about how sporty they are, the activities they enjoy, possible barriers and motivations and guidance in how to effectively market sport to each profile. The segmentation was based on Demographic and Geographic variables. This segmentation process allowed them to understand the top sports that people want to involve themselves in and helped them to identify the characteristics of their target groups for projects and initiatives. An example of their successful market segmentation policy is South Gloucestershire Leisure’s reopening of a refurbished leisure center in the year 2007. With the help of their market segmentation data and knowledge on how to market to its customers by identifying which activities people are more interested in. 1. Sport England created a segment profile which identified the largest segments within a 1-, 3-, 5-, 7- and 10- mile straight line buffer of the leisure center. 2. The largest segments were then mapped to show the geographic location of these segments which allowed them to localize the market and focus on specific things like information on lifestyles of customers in the Gloucestershire region, the proper community needs of the region. 3. They identified the dominant segment in each postal code and accordingly produced marketing material targeting at those segments. 4. They identified the areas where the population of children were more and targeted it with the right marketing techniques. Segment Name| | Forename| Population| Male| Female| In Million| Competitive Male Urbanites| A01| Ben| 6. 4| 13. 3| 0| 2,521| Sports Team Drinkers| A02| Jamie| 5. 4| 11. 1| 0| 2,127| Fitness Class Friends| A03| Chloe| 6. 9| 0| 13. 4| 2,717| Supportive Singles| A04| Leanne| 4. 7| 0| 9. 1| 1,851| Career Focused Females| B05| Helena| 5| 0| 9. 7| 1,969| Settling Down Males| B06| Tim| 9. 4| 19. 3| 0| 3,702| Stay at Home Mums| B07| Alison| 4. 6| 0| 8. 9| 1,812| Middle England Mums| B08| Jackie| 4| 0| 7. 7| 1,575| Pub League Team Mates| B09| Key| 5. 8| 12| 0| 2,284| Stretched Single Mums| B10| Paula| 3. 8| 0| 7. 4| 1,497| Comfortable Mid-Life Males| C11| Philip| 7. 8| 16| 0| 3,072| Empty Nest Career Ladies| C12| Elaine| 5. 3| 0| 10. 2| 2,087| Early Retirement Couples| C13| Roger Joy| 6. 2| 6. 2| 6. 3| 2,442| Older Working Women| C14| Brenda| 4| 0| 7. 6| 1,575| Local ‘Old Boys’| C15| Terry| 3. 4| 7| 0| 1,339| Later Life Ladies| C16| Norma| 2| 0| 3. 6| 788| Comfortable Retired Couples| D17| Ralph Phyllis| 3. 7| 5| 2. 4| 1,457| Twilight Year Gents| D18| Frank| 3. 5| 7. 1| 0| 1,378| Retirement Home Singles| D19| Elise Arnold| 8. 3| 2. 5| 13. 8| 3,269| A 18 24 year olds B 25 45 years C 46 65 years D 65 + 1. 2. Choose a segment and describe a campaign that could be used to encourage people in that segment to participate in one of the named sports related to their segment. I chose Segment 5 Helena â€Å"career focused females†. Characteristics:   Mainly aged 26-45   Single   Full time professional   Enjoy life in the fast lane As there are all career focused women in this segment, they are busy with their office work during the week and have a busy schedule. The working women also suffer from physical and mental fatigue. . Helena likes to keep in shape. After a long working day women in this segment might decide to catch a class or a long workout on the machines In this segment the participants in the cycling sport (11%) are less compared to swimming (22%) and keep fit gym (26%). Sport England could encourage more participants in the Cycling sport by organizing cycling rallies and events on the weekends. This could also help out in giving a social message to the community regarding health and environment. 3. Describe the role that Sport England plays in targeting a segment. South Gloucestershire Leisure center is an example of the role played by Sport England. The company is encouraging more and more people to participate in sports. Their web tool methods and using the media and communication platforms is being one of the most successful ways to target a segment. Sport England also carries out its target segmentation through various mediums like Internet, mobile phones, newspapers and magazines. These mediums are used by large audience and therefore the product information reaches them easily. 4. Choose a sport not listed and select appropriate segments that might participate in it. Explain why the sport might appeal to people in these segments.   Sport: Yoga   Segments:   Helena- Career Focused Females   Jackie-Middle England Mums   Paula- Stretched Single Mums   Brenda-Older Working Women It has been proved over the recent years that Yoga is one of the most successful exercise sports and helps in keeping fit and relaxing the mind. As Yoga is mostly a female oriented sport, it could be used to target the ladies in the above segments. There can be daily or weekend yoga sessions arranged for the segments according to their availability. As for the career focused ladies this would be the best form of exercise as it would relax them both mentally and physically. It is one kind of exercise which would appeal to all the age groups of women and motivate them to participate in it. 5. Briefly outline a marketing campaign for your chosen sport. 1. We will start a marketing campaign that focuses on the benefits of Yoga:   Yoga can help cure insomnia, as its regular yoga practice leads to better and deeper sleep. Yoga can help fight fatigue and maintain your energy throughout the day.   A regular yoga practice helps boost antioxidants throughout your body, resulting in a stronger immune system and improved ability to heal quickly from disease or injury.   Yoga can help you lose weight and maintain a healthy weight throughout your life. Power yoga is an excellent form of cardio conditioning, which strengthens core muscles while it keeps blood and oxygen circulating throughout your body. 2. We will use the appropriate marketing tools to reach our target customers and deliver the necessary message.

SAB Miller: Strategy Analysis and PEST

SAB Miller: Strategy Analysis and PEST INTRODUCTION SAB Miller is a South African brewing company and is the second largest brewer in the world, with sales and distribution across six different continents. SAB Miller with wide brand portfolio, both international premium beers to local brands it has come a long way, weathering turbulent times and political crisis. It is also one of the largest bottlers for Coca Cola. VISION AND MISSION OF THE GROUP VISION To be the most admired company in the global beer industry Investment of choice Employer of choice Partner of choice MISSION To own and nurture local and international brands that are the first choice of the consumer VALUES Our people are our enduring advantage Accountability is clear and personal We work and win in teams We understand and respect our customers and consumers Our reputation is indivisible CORPORATE STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY SAB MILLER SAB Miller being one of the oldest (100 plus) brewing company it had tremendous experience in the brewing field and the strategies used by SAB Miller are categorized as follows: Political Acquisitions and mergers Wide portfolio Brand value POLITICAL SAB being oldest brewing company in South Africa it was battered by political crisis during the 20th century. It has emerged as a company with building its operations in emerging and mature markets. During 1948 due to racist system of Apartheid, there was opposition to the company. SAB also came across various other forces during this period they are: Business restricted to the country only Restrictions on doing business with international companies Investing in or trading with South African companies SAB formulated solution in order to comply with Government restrictions they were: In 1950, SAB moved its HO from London to Johannesburg. Focused on expansion mostly in southern parts of Africa and South Africa Dominating the local market and domestic beer production Expanding its product portfolio First company to employ the code of non-discriminatory employment In 1970 SAB became fully incorporated in South Africa and by the year 2000, it dominated the South African market to such an extent that 49 of every 50 beer consumed were brewed by SAB. IMPLICATIONS Due to the political conditions in South Africa SAB had very less room of doing business internationally, but these restrictions helped them to create a monopoly in South Africa. It owned a 99 percent market share here. It also incorporated its head quarters to Johannesburg, which helped it develop its market in Africa. Employing non-discriminatory code of employment helped it to gain public support. It expanded its portfolio by buying local breweries and started producing locally brewed Guinness, Amstel, and Carling black label. ACQUSITIONS AND MERGERS Due to the restrictions on local companies by the government, SAB had to settle in for the local South African market. Dominating the local market and eliminating competition was the goal of the company at the time and it was achieved by acquiring other local breweries and distribution facilities and by rationalized production. SAB also obtained the licensing of locally brewed Guinness, Amstel and Carling black label. SAB made major acquisitions immediately after when the imposed restrictions were relaxed due the finalized process for establishment of a multiracial democracy in 1990. SAB acquired Stellenbosch Farmers Winery in 1960. In 1993, SAB acquired Hungarys largest brewery, Dreher that opened new door for further developments into central Europe In 1994, SAB in joint venture with Tanzanian government it revitalized the brewing industry and also in countries like Zambia, Mozambique and Angola, SAB gave boost to production and distribution. During the 90s SAB established operations in China, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Russia, and Czeck Republic. Acquiring 100% stakes in the Miller brewing company in 2002 was one of the most significant acquisitions made by SAB and becoming SAB Miller in the process. Licencing of shebeens and launching them in retail mainstream. SAB Miller also bought out its joint venture partner in India. SAB Miller in 2005 merged with South American brewer Grupo Empresarial Bavaria. IMPLICATIONS OF ACUSITIONS AND MERGERS SAB controlled an estimated 99% of the market share in South Africa and had dominating positions in Swaziland, Lesotho, Rhodesia and Botswana. SAB was able to diversify their business through joint ventures. Due to fragmentation and small-scale business in Europe and Asia SAB was able to create profitable and fast growing business. Launched quality products than their competitors for which the consumers had to pay more. SAB promoted their premium brands. Developing countries have growing economies thus opening doors for attractive markets. SABMiller sends in both technical and distribution teams for inspection before it enters the market Scare of HIV pandemic cost SAB costly labor, decrease in productivity SAB business spread provided them with portfolio business With volatile market in emerging economies where in SAB incurred majority of its profits, it had indirect effect in confidence of SAB in these countries. SAB listed itself on LSE to give boost to its infrastructure. Share price drop by 15.5% relative to FTSE 100 in the year end Nov 2000 Acquiring Miller Brewing Company made it second largest brewer in the world. SAB could balance out loss in one country with profits in other countries. Expanding production capacity and raising the quality of product in India. Dip in share price of SAB Miller after acquiring Miller Brewing Company. Introduced new packaging with new sales and distribution system and enhanced the flexibility of their production facilities. SAB Trained around 6000 newly licensed taverniers in business skills. SAB introduced broader and segmented brands SAB gained strong and profitable market in South America; profits went up by 25%. PORTFOLIO EXPANSION SAB Miller brewing company is the second largest brewing company and has a wide portfolio globally, it has over 200 varieties of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, produced and distributed. The major premium brands are Pilsner Urquell, Peroni Nastro Azzurro, Miller Genuine Draft, and Grolsch. They started their expanding its portfolio by gaining control over Stellenbosch Farmers Winery in 1960. Between 1960s- 70s it obtained license to brew locally Guinness, Amstel and Carling black label. In 1987, SAB acquired Lion Match Company. Re-launch of Miller geniuine draft with high end positioning of mainstream market. Launch of Peroni Nastro Azzurro. EFFECT Dominating the South African Market Leading match manufacture in South Africa Better market position Increase in sales Profitable production and distribution Capture of demographic market Competitive advantage on the world stage Improvised marketing, sales and distribution Annual report emphasized the importance broader portfolio in the companys corporate success. PEST ANALYSIS PEST analysis of an organization is an important part of strategic planning, as it looks at the external environment in which the firm operates. PEST analysis helps company to develop strategies. The factors taken into account are: Political Economic Social Technological Political Factors Under Political factors we have is the government rules and regulations on operations of a firm or company. For SABMiller the following factors apply: South African government regulations Crisis due to racism International dealing and trading restrictions Employment laws Economic Factors Economic factors include exchange rate, taxation, market growth trends, GDP, disposable income, inflation, production volume, etc In SABMillers case, the following apply: Volatility of the exchange rate in developing countries Economic growth in developing worlds Listing on LSTE Acquisition of Miller Brewing Company Sensible product pricing Production and distribution costs Resource and labor cost Labor unrest Social Factors Social factors include the demographic and cultural aspects, health and living standards, population shifts and so on. In case of SABMiller Change in consumption pattern Attachment to locally brewed beer Consumers becoming heath conscious Class structure Technological Factors Technological factors include new invention, improvised tools and techniques, communication etc. It can lower barriers to entry, can lower down minimum efficient production levels, and influence outsourcing decisions. In SABMillers case are as follows: Research and development World class Automation in developing countries Production and distribution expertise Technology improvements QA 1. Identify the corporate logics that SABMiller have adopted over the course of the case. As discussed above SABMiller has adapted various strategies in order to be a leading brewer, they are: Dealing with political rules and regulations Acquisitions and merger on a global scale Broader portfolio Business in developing economies e.g. China, India Repositioning and re-launching of products Buying controlling stakes in newly privatized brewery 2. Strategy a. Explain the strategic position that SAB finds itself in 2007. As described SABMiller has good strategic position apart from fierce competition by Anheuser-Busch. Dominating positions in South African and South American markets with good market share in Europe SAB has expanded globally especially in Central and Eastern Europe, China apart from Southern part of Africa. It has operations in over of 18 countries with 30 breweries, with capacity 30.5 million hectoliters capacity and 22 sorghum beer with 8.5 million hectoliter capacity thus can create major market in these countries. Though SABMiller lost the bid to acquire Harbin Brewery to Anheuser-Busch, it had competitive market in China with market growth by 6-8 percent per year. With wide portfolio, SABMiller was able to capture the demographic market. SAB was able to balance out loss in one country with profits in other countries. With growing economies in developing countries, there was increase in disposable income, which gave way for better market share and profits with attractive pricing. Even though SABMiller had a few problems with share price drop due to listing company in LSE and acquisition of Miller Brewing Company, stakeholders must have a firm belief in the SABMiller as it a FMCG company. The chance of losing share value is rare and with globalization of the company, the chances are high profitability and higher dividends to shareholders. Acquisition of the major breweries and winery has helped SAB in dominating as well as having monopoly in countries SABMiller had a strong and wide portfolio with launch of new products and attractive pricing, creating strong demographic market and flexibility in the system. SABMiller could use its world-class technology and operation expertise to develop market in continents and also SABMiller sends in both technical and distribution teams for inspection before it enters the market Africa Has around 99% market share in South Africa and dominates in the rest of Africa. Asia/E.Europe Has breweries is Asia pacific but with fierce competition and growth of market in India. Good market share in Russia, Romania, and Czeck Republic and with acquisition of Hungarys brewery Dreher which paved way for further developments in Europe. However, the future here remains uncertain until any major take over is carried out. Latin America Merger with Grupo Empresarial Bavaria 2nd largest brewer in South America consolidated SABMillers position. 4. Acquisition of Miller Brewing Company is the only major deal by SAB and becoming 2nd largest brewer, but has a tough time because of stiff competition by Anheuser-Busch. 5. SABMiller has a strong and diversified business with broad portfolio that will ultimately pay off as it creates a demographic market and flexibility in operations. 6. Joint venture with Grupo Empresarial Bavaria 2nd largest brewer in South America opened doors in Latin America, with lower investment and creating opportunities for itself 3. On the basis of your analysis, recommend the strategy that SAB should follow. In my opinion SABMiller must develop their markets is Asia i.e. in China, India, and Asia Pacific. Though the market remains volatile, the chances of profit making are high. SABMiller must look forward to acquire Harbin brewery in China, as the market growth rate is 6-8 percent per year. SABMiller must try acquiring majority stakes in Bavaria brewery, as there is growth in market. SABMiller can dominate the local market and develop excellent operations by acquiring breweries with low performance, but with dominating market share with its expertise in production, distribution operations.

A Tear Between Twins :: Personal Narrative Writing

A Tear Between Twins "Come on guys, we really shouldn't," I begged Shawn, the driver of our group date. "It is so rude of us to drive by and ruin this special moment for Janae and Bryce. We all know why they have gone up to the temple don't we? I mean it is their six month anniversary, and neither of them have had their first kiss yet! Hmmm..???" Even though I truly meant what I was saying, a part of me wanted to ruin this fairytale event in their relationship. Not that I disapproved of Janae and Bryce being together; I guess it was the fact that she was moving a step ahead of me for the first time in our lives. After all, I had a reason for this mean streak--Bryce had stolen my best friend. February 13th, 1979, Janae and I were born in Sunrise Hospital, four minutes apart, to two anxious, ecstatic, and not to mention exhausted parents. Immediately following the birth, the doctor glanced up at my mother and father and announced that they were the proud parents of identical twin girls. My sister Janae was born first weighing a mere four pounds 11 ounces and I swiftly followed, weighing a hefty seven pounds zero ounces (very large for the average twin). The doctor proceeded to tell my mother that identical twins automatically have a special bond that exists between them, and that she was to enjoy the many fun, challenging, yet exciting experiences to come. One of the most challenging experiences to come would be the dreadful day when the two of us would realize that we couldn't be together always. That memorable day we slept together, side by side, in our rectangular clear plastic hospital beds -- determined to be inseparable for the remainder of our lives. Several people are considerably fascinated with twins, but don't quite comprehend exactly what it is like to be one. Actually, being a twin really isn't that different than not being a twin. (Or at least I don't think it is. The truth is that I have never not been one.) I believe, however, there is one advantage to being an identical twin. Identical twins are basically made up of the same ingredients. There is a connection that exists right from birth. In our case, Janae and I have found that we enjoy the same books, the same sports, the same food, we love the rain, and lastly our taste in guys is nearly the same.

Off to the Mall Essay -- essays research papers

"Let's go to the mall." This comment is one of the few statements that can be heard coming from the mouths of both sexes. While typically associated with shopping, and thus automatically, and unfairly, females, going to the mall has mutual attractions to both males and females. Since the massive increase of shopping malls in this country, the popularity of "going to the mall" has increased a thousand fold for everyone. For females the reason that "going to the mall" is so popular is very clear. Females were always taught that their rightful place is at home taking care of their families (this statement is aid without trying to sound chauvinistic). When the car made a sudden impact on the world during the middle part of the century, even more responsibility's were added to the wife's list of "to do's." The wife no longer just took care of the family. She now was able to go out and shop for food, clothes, or anything else that her family may need. In a sense the wife now had more freedom to take care of the family by being away from the home more. Today women are no different then their 1950's counterparts. While contemporary women are much more free-minded about their own place in society, there still lies the motherly instinct to go out and purchase for the family. This instinct may change in time, but until that change occurs this cause shall remain as the chief reason why women "got to the mall" or "go shopping." ...

Customer Loyalty Essay -- Business, Customer Relationship Management

The Customer loyalty has been a major and unanimously acknowledged as a valuable asset in competitive markets according to Srivastava, Shervani, & Fahey, 2000. As a result, it becomes more important to give power to in loyalty panel particularly when the consumers faces very low switching or moving cost to other product or service, because they are not locked in by a contract (Shapiro & Vivian, 2000). It is also become important in competitive markets due to availability of more lucrative and easily available options. The concept of customer loyalty has been around and present throughout in all parts/activities of numerous industries in the past decade (Lewis, 1997). The development of loyalty includes building and supporting a relationship with a customer, which leads to the repetitive purchase of products or services over a given period of time. A loyal customer base also permits companies to offer their expertise and skills to other business matters (Gefen, 2002; Rowley & Dawes, 2 000). In order to understand what drives customer loyalty or how your business defines customer loyalty we can look at the behavioral aspect of it. Customers can show their loyalty in a number of ways. They can prefer to stay with a firm, whether this persistence is distinct as a relationship or not, or they can increase the number of purchases, or they can do both (Reinartz & Kumar, 2003; Rowley & Dawes, 2000). The purpose of this research is to link loyalty to the up-and-coming theories of CRM (Macintosh & Lockshin, 1997) or as the key element, of effective CRM. Although some authors, such as Dick & Basu (1994), have different view of each element of it and make a distinction between brand loyalty, store loyalty, sales people loyalty, product and ser... ...ection of cognitive and affective elements was analyzed by Oliver (1999). Attitudinal loyalty can at times lead customers to provide exceptional value to the company through positive word of mouth researched by Dick & Basu, 1994; Hagel & Armstrong, 1997; Reichheld, 2003. Letdown to relation for attitudinal loyalty could lead to false loyalty (Dick & Basu, 1994). Thus, to attain true loyalty, firms should in tandem focus on building both behavioral and attitudinal loyalty. So if we look at both the service management and the marketing literatures both suggest that there is a well-built theoretical foundation for an experiential examination of the linkages among customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, and profitability. Storbacka argues that there is comparatively little amount of empirical research performed on these relationships to date (Storbacka et al., 1994)

History of the Internet Essay

Importance of internet Journal #6 Internet had a large impact in my life when I was a teenage and still plays an important role in my daily life. At that time, I was more interested in playing games and exploring every topic that would come to my mind through the internet. I thought of the internet and the computer only as something for fun but this still helped me get used to working and understanding computer and internet. As I grew older; however, I realized the importance of the internet because of the information I could access and the easy contact I could have with my friends and family. Communication with my family and friends is the most important aspect of internet on my daily life. Without Facebook, Skype, and other programs I would not be able to regularly speak to my loved ones throughout the world which would have a huge impact on my daily life. Not only are these programs easy to use but also they are free which doubles the benefits of internet. Since I have moved to Texas I have also been able to use these programs to find new friends I may have not been able to find if it was not for the internet. Furthermore, the information and help I can get on the internet has allowed me become a better student. Often when I may have difficulty with an assignment I use the internet to help guide me into a right direction by using proper educational web sources that can provide me with valuable information. A negative side to the impact of the internet on my daily life is that it is easy sometimes to get distracted and waste time. Either way, the internet plays an important role in my daily life for without it I would not be able to speak to my family and not be able to access the vast amount of information that is provided through the internet.